road

Specially constructed route for wheeled vehicles to travel on. Reinforced tracks became necessary with the invention of wheeled vehicles in about 3000 BC and most ancient civilizations had some form of road network.

Early history
The first major road was the Persian Royal Road from the Gulf to the Aegean Sea, more than 2,800 km/4,480 mi long, used from 3500 BC. Ancient China also had an extensive road network. The Romans developed engineering techniques that were not equalled for another 1,400 years. Roman roads were usually straight, and composed of large flat stones, topped with a layer of gravel and a hard surface. During the Middle Ages, the quality of roads deteriorated. By the late 18th century most European roads were haphazardly maintained, making winter travel difficult. In England the Statute for Mending the Highways (1555) required all members of the parish to spend four days a year working on mending the roads, but the work was poorly done or not done at all, and travellers complained of ruts, mud, accidents, and highwaymen. Roads were particularly impracticable for heavy or bulk transport, and iron‐rimmed wagon wheels broke up the road surface, despite legislation to try to increase the width of wheels.

Improvements after 1700
General George Wade, commander of the English army in Scotland, improved many of the roads in the Highlands between 1726 and 1737, so that troops could be moved to areas of disturbance more quickly. In the 18th century in the UK, the increasing pace of trade required a corresponding improvement in the roads. The turnpike road system of collecting tolls created some improvement (although the turnpikes met with some opposition, notably the Rebecca Riots in South Wales 1842–44). The Scottish engineers Thomas Telford and John McAdam introduced sophisticated construction methods in the late 18th and early 19th century. The years from around 1750 to 1835 have been called ‘the Coaching Age’, as improved road transport allowed reduced journey times, stagecoaches, coaching inns, haulage firms, and a national postal service. The advent of the railways, however, drove most coaching firms into bankruptcy.

Modern roads
The bicycling craze of the late 19th century and the development of the internal combustion engine and motor car led to the improvement of road systems after 1900. Road builders began to use asphalt to create a smooth, durable surface that would not create dust. The first motorway was completed in Italy in 1924, and Hitler initiated a system of autobahns in Germany in the 1930s.