Victoria (1819–1901)

Queen of the UK from 1837, when she succeeded her uncle William IV, and Empress of India from 1877. In 1840 she married Prince Albert of Saxe‐Coburg and Gotha. Her relations with her prime ministers ranged from the affectionate (Melbourne and Disraeli) to the occasionally stormy (Peel, Palmerston, and Gladstone). Her Golden Jubilee in 1887 and Diamond Jubilee in 1897 marked a waning of republican sentiment, which had developed with her withdrawal from public life on Albert's death in 1861.

The only child of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III, she was born on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace, London, and named Alexandria Victoria. Her father died when she was eight months old, and her uncles failed to produce legitimate heirs, leading to her accession. She and Albert had four sons and five daughters. After Albert's death she lived mainly in retirement. Nevertheless, she kept control of affairs, refusing the Prince of Wales (Edward VII) any active role. From 1848 she regularly visited the Scottish Highlands, where she had a house at Balmoral built to Prince Albert's designs. She died at Osborne House, her home in the Isle of Wight, on 22 January 1901, and was buried at Windsor.

Government
In the early years of her reign the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne heavily influenced the young queen. Melbourne acted as her closest adviser, and took on the role of an effective father figure to the young monarch. After Victoria married her German cousin, Prince Albert, in 1840, and Melbourne ceased to be prime minister in 1841, Victoria was heavily influenced by her husband. Although Melbourne had tried to shield the queen from the realities of the appalling social conditions that existed in her rapidly industrializing nation, Prince Albert actively encouraged her to find out about the problems faced by her subjects. Albert even invited the social reformer Lord Ashley to Buckingham Palace to discuss child labour in Britain.

Throughout her reign Victoria took an active and involved role in the politics and government of Britain. However she did not possess as much power over the government as her predecessors had held. The 1832 Reform Act had seen influence pass into the hands of the elected House of Commons from the hereditary House of Lords. With an expanding electorate after the further reform acts of 1867 and 1884, Victoria was further reduced to the position of a modern constitutional monarch. She possessed great powers in theory, but was really more of a figurehead, who was supposed to stay out of party politics.

However, Victoria had strong opinions about her prime ministers and the policies that her governments followed. She was supportive of Lord Melbourne, who was prime minister from 1837 to 1841. When Melbourne resigned in 1839, Robert Peel, the leader of the Conservative Party, became prime minister. Victoria was required to change her ladies‐in‐waiting from Whigs to Tories to match the change of government, but demonstrated a determined independence by refusing to do so. Peel resigned in response to her action, and Melbourne returned as prime minister. Victoria was unable to exhibit the same level of influence again, as she was forced to accept prime ministers who were not to her liking later in her reign.

When Melbourne finally resigned in 1841, Victoria developed a generally good relationship with the reappointed Peel, and this continued with his successor John Russell, Liberal prime minister 1846–52. However, when Victoria disapproved of the assertive policy of his foreign secretary Lord Palmerston, and tried to have Palmerston sacked in 1850, she was told by Russell that Palmerston was popular in the House of Commons and could not be removed from office. It was only when Palmerston upset his fellow Liberal ministers by expressing support for the new French dictator Napoleon III that he was sacked. The power of elected politicians to choose the government was clearly greater than that of the monarch.

In the second half of her reign Victoria had mixed relations with the three main prime ministers. She was openly hostile towards the Liberal William Gladstone (prime minister 1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, and 1892–94), and made little effort to get on with him. Victoria saw Gladstone as cold and aloof, and opposed his liberal policies, such as the 1867 Reform Act, although she was unable to stop the government's wishes from becoming law. Her relationship with Gladstone was in direct contrast to the relationship that she enjoyed with Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative prime minister 1868 and 1874–80). Disraeli was admired and respected by Victoria, and she responded well to his constant flattery and efforts to encourage her to feel that her advice was welcomed and respected.

The last major leader of Victoria's reign was the Conservative Lord Salisbury (prime minister 1885–86, 1886–92, and 1895–1902). Salisbury was a strong supporter of imperialism, which matched Victoria's own ideas about the importance of the British Empire. He was also strongly conservative in political matters, and this too suited the queen. However, even if Salisbury had not been to Victoria's liking, she would not have been able to stop his policies. By the end of her reign power had passed completely from the monarch to the elected government chosen by the House of Commons.

Private and public life
Victoria's reign was marked by an early period of public happiness and exposure. Following her marriage to Albert in 1840 the couple worked hard to promote the image of a constitutional monarchy as good for the nation, particularly as the 1830s and 1840s saw widespread revolutionary activity in Europe. By the time of Prince Albert's death from typhoid fever in 1861, Victoria had borne nine children, and the royal family was a popular institution across the country. Victoria had become heavily dependent on her husband's advice and counsel, normally refusing to act until she had consulted with him.

Albert's death in 1861 affected Victoria profoundly, and she withdrew completely from public life. Her public appearances became rare, and much of the popular support and affection she had built up since 1837 was lost. Support for the abolition of the monarchy grew, although it never seriously threatened to become the majority opinion in Britain. There were attempts on the queen's life. Seven people tried to kill Victoria between 1840 and 1882.

Her eldest son Albert Edward (known as Bertie; the future Edward VII) carried out the monarch's official duties. Between 1861 and 1865 Victoria even failed to carry out the state opening of Parliament. Further damage was done to the monarchy by the persistent rumours of a relationship between Victoria and John Brown, her servant at the Scottish estate of Balmoral. Some people even referred to Victoria as ‘Mrs Brown’.

Despite her withdrawal from public life, Victoria continued to be a careful and hardworking constitutional monarch. She always responded to the official government papers and letters that required her attention, and met ministers and foreign visitors as was needed. Although after Albert's death she wore black for the rest of her reign, she made an increasing return to public life during the 1870s.

The last 30 years of Victoria's reign saw the peak of her popularity with the British people. Britain was the most powerful nation in the world, with an empire that stretched around the globe. The feeling of imperial pride was promoted by the government to an enthusiastic people. As monarch of Britain, Queen Victoria was the personal symbol of the power and prestige of the British Empire. Her Golden Jubilee in 1887, celebrating 50 years on the throne, was met with great public displays of affection and celebration. The same was true of her Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

Victoria died on 22 January 1901 at Osborne House. She had reigned for nearly 64 years, the longest reign of any British monarch. Her reign had seen Britain change from a country in the early stages of industrialization to a fully developed industrial power. The British Empire had been greatly expanded during her reign, with colonial gains in Africa and Asia. Victoria's reign had also witnessed enormous changes in political power, as voting rights were extended first to middle‐class males and then to working‐class males. The power of the House of Commons increased throughout her reign, until by her death in 1901 the power of the monarch to control governments was all but gone. A large amount of social reform had taken place during her reign, covering working conditions, public health, and education. The significance of Victoria and her reign is evidenced by the fact that the period was christened throughout the English‐speaking world as the Victorian era.