Roman Catholicism

One of the main divisions of the Christian religion, separate from the Eastern Orthodox Church from 1054. It is headed by the pope, who traces his authority back through St Peter (the first bishop of Rome) to Jesus, through apostolic succession. Its headquarters are in the Vatican City State, in Rome. Membership is concentrated in southern Europe, Latin America, and the Philippines. In 2000 Rome reported the number of baptized Roman Catholics to be 1.045 billion, more than half the Christians in the world. The present pope is Benedict XVI, from 2005.

Reformation and Counter‐Reformation
The Protestant churches separated from the Catholic church with the Reformation in the 16th century. In Germany, Switzerland, and other European countries, this came about as a result of fundamental divisions on matters of church doctrine and practice. However, in England, the Reformation was sparked primarily by disagreement over questions of royal marriage and succession. The Tudor monarch Henry VIII– once a staunch ‘defender of the faith’, who had written a pamphlet attacking the German Protestant reformer Martin Luther – established a separate Anglican Church with its own doctrine and liturgy after the pope had refused to sanction his divorce of Catherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn.

In response to the Reformation, in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Catholic Church undertook the campaign of education and coercion known as the Counter‐Reformation. An attempt to update Catholic doctrines was condemned by Pope Pius X in 1907, and later moves towards reform were rejected by Pope John Paul II.

Doctrine and worship
The focus of liturgical life is the Mass, or Eucharist, and attendance is obligatory on Sundays and Feasts of Obligation such as Christmas and Easter. Inside the church is a formal setting, with the high altar (a table representing that of the Last Supper) as the focal point. Since the Second Vatican Council (1962–66), called by Pope John XXIII, the liturgy has been conducted in the vernacular or everyday language instead of Latin.

The Roman Catholic Church differs from the other Christian churches in that it acknowledges the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, and papal infallibility when he speaks ex cathedra (‘from the throne’). The pope usually speaks in the name of the church on questions of faith and morals, and his declarations are infallible (without error). In 1854 the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, was declared official doctrine; this states that she was conceived without the original sin with which all other human beings are born. The Virgin Mary is accorded a special place in the Roman Catholic Church. Declarations on moral issues include condemnation of artificial forms of contraception and abortion (see Christian ethics). Roman Catholics hold that the authority of the church has safeguarded God's teachings.

Organization
The Second Vatican Council was called by Pope John XXIII to bring the church up to date and make it more aware of 20th‐century issues. Roman Catholic clerics attended from all over the world. Since the meeting of the Council, major changes have taken place, resulting in increased freedom among the religious and lay orders. The pope has an episcopal synod of 200 bishops elected by local hierarchies to collaborate in the government of the church. The priesthood is celibate and there is a strong emphasis on the monastic orders. Great importance is also attached to the mission of spreading the faith. Under John Paul II 1978–2005, power became more centralized, and bishops and cardinals were chosen from the more traditionally minded clerics and from the developing world.

Attitude to other religions
The Second Vatican Council marked a more tolerant attitude to other world religions. Changes included the condemnation of religious persecutions. Pope John XXIII set up a committee to look at the relationship between the Roman Catholic and other Christian churches, and his work in the ecumenical movement continued after his death. Representatives have also attended meetings of the World Council of Churches as observers.

Roman Catholicism in Britain
In England, for more than two centuries after the Reformation, scattered Catholics were served by missionary priests, whose activities were subject to penal laws. Toleration was officially extended to Catholics by the Catholic Emancipation Act 1829, and a Roman Catholic episcopate was restored in England and Wales in 1850, and in Scotland in 1878.

Irish immigration (chiefly as a result of the potato famine in the mid‐19th century) played a major role in determining the subsequent development and character of English Roman Catholicism. Today, its demonstrative worship and apostolic fervour contrast forcibly with the sober and unobtrusive English Catholicism of penal times.

In March 2000, the Most Reverend Cormac Murphy‐O'Connor became the 10th archbishop of Westminster, leader of the Catholic Church in Britain, succeeding Cardinal Basil Hume who died in 1999.

Political policy
Politically, the policy of the Roman Catholic Church has been to establish working relationships with national governments, both Catholic and non‐Catholic, occasionally making use of concordats to achieve this end. The Holy See maintains official representatives of varying rank in most European countries, as well as in many non‐European states (papal representatives abroad being known as nuncios or legates), while most of these states have accredited representatives at the Vatican. The political prestige of the Holy See was enhanced by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 with the Italian government, under which the Vatican City was recognized as a sovereign state.