India: history 1526–1858

Period of Indian history under the rule of the north Indian Mogul dynasty. The Islamic Mogul civilization flourished in the Indian subcontinent (present‐day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) during the 16th and 17th centuries. Emperors such as Babur, Akbar, and Aurangzeb controlled a hugely wealthy and culturally diverse empire. However, despite its apparent success, the empire was undermined by a combination of poor leadership, overstretched resources, and the activities of foreign traders, particularly the British and French, who sent in armies to support their interests. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Mogul Empire slowly collapsed under these pressures, until by the 1850s the Mogul sultan was simply a servant of the British Raj.

The word Mogul is a Persian corruption or translation of Mongol, as the founders of the Mogul Empire were descended through Tamerlane, a Turkic conqueror who claimed to be a descendant of the great Mongol emperor Genghis Khan.

Establishment of the Mogul Empire by Babur (ruled 1526–30)
In 1526 Tamerlane's great‐grandson Babur led his forces from Persia into northern India. His defeat of the sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at the Battle of Panipat laid the foundations of the Mogul Empire. He then attacked the surrounding Hindu states of northern India, overcoming the strong forces of the Rajput princes. From this base, the Moguls expanded their rule for the next century and a half. Babur died suddenly in 1530, and the imperial throne passed to his son Humayun.

Humayun (ruled 1530–40 and 1554–56)
The reign of Humayun was more unsettled and was broken by a period of exile. Unlike his father, Humayun was not a capable leader and failed to strengthen his territory. In 1540 the Bengali sultan Sher Kahn (also known as Sher Shad Suri) invaded the Mogul Empire and defeated Humayun's forces. Humayun went into exile in Persia, where he waited for an opportunity to reconquer his empire. In 1545 Sher Khan died, and his successors proved to be inefficient. Humayun returned to India, and in 1555 reoccupied Delhi and Agra and took back the lands left to him by Babur. The Mogul Empire had suffered a severe blow in its earliest years of existence, and one that clearly demonstrated India's hostile political environment, where states constantly competed for territory and power. Humayun died after falling down the steps of his great library, and was succeeded by his son Akbar in 1556.

Akbar (ruled 1556–1605)
Under Akbar the empire was extended as far as Bengal in the east and Godavari in the south. Kashmir, Baluchistan, Sind, and Gujarat were also taken into the empire. The Gondwana chiefs and most of the Rajput princes became allies controlled by Akbar, and were obliged to give him tribute (payment and services that acknowledged their submission).

Akbar's reign was marked by religious toleration of all non‐Muslim religions, including Hindus, Jews, and Christians. They were allowed to practise their faith openly and build religious buildings. They were also released from the special taxes that had been imposed by the Mogul emperors Babur and Humayun. In addition to his acceptance of native religions, Akbar allowed Portuguese missionaries to enter the Mogul Empire, where they influenced both art and religion. Apart from his wish to be tolerant of other faiths, Akbar's religious policy aimed to preserve the peace and stability of the Mogul Empire. He realised that in an empire where Muslim officials ruled over Hindu subjects, it was sensible to allow the Hindu population to be free and successful.

Akbar divided his empire into provinces governed by officials with military ranking. The system proved an effective way of controlling vast areas of territory, and made it easier for Akbar to ensure the strength of his empire. A system of taxes based on average crop yields and prices was introduced so that tax collection would be fairer and more efficient. Painting and architecture flourished with royal support. Akbar's reign is considered to be one of the greatest periods of the Mogul Empire, and his capability earned him the title ‘Guardian of Mankind’. He was succeeded in 1605 by his son Jahangir.

Jahangir (ruled 1605–27)
Jahangir inherited an empire that had been greatly expanded and strengthened during Akbar's long reign. He continued his father's policy of toleration, and made good use of the efficient system of government that Akbar had established. However, the second half of his reign was beset by rebellion and conflict over the succession. His successor, Dewar Baksh, ruled briefly 1627–28, when he was succeeded by Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan (ruled 1628–58)
Shah Jahan extended the empire southwards. The southern dynasties of Bijapur and Golconda came under Mogul control and Ahmadnagar was occupied. Shah Jahan also followed Akbar's policy of toleration towards non‐Muslims. His reign, however, is most celebrated for his architectural works, which are regarded as a high point in Indo‐Islamic architecture, a combination of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Taj Mahal near Agra was built as a memorial and mausoleum (burial place) for Shah Jahan's wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died in childbirth in 1630. Shah Jehan also remodelled the Agra fort.

However, Shah Jehan failed to appreciate the great discontent both within his family and among the most influential people in his empire. In 1658 he became seriously ill and was overthrown by his third son, Aurangzeb. He was moved to the recently reconstructed Agra fort, where he was held prisoner until he died in 1666.

Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707)
After imprisoning Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb seized the throne and murdered the real heir to the throne, Dara Shukoh. A family war occurred, in which Aurangzeb emerged victorious. Most of his reign was spent in conquering the south. His campaigns brought him into conflict with the Marathas who, under Sivaji (1627–80), established an independent kingdom including the coastal areas of Konkan as well as areas in Mysore and the Coramandel Coast. Aurangzeb spent his last 26 years fighting the Marathas, who were not defeated but were tempered by war into ruthless confederations.

Sivaji's son was executed in 1689 and the Moguls seemed secure in their power throughout the India. However, by 1700 the Marathas were again marauding the Deccan and the eastern provinces. The Rajput allies were at war with the emperor and, close to the capital, Sikhs, Jats, and Satnamis were in revolt.

One of the most significant decisions of Aurangzeb's reign was the ending of religious tolerance towards non‐Muslims, which had been enjoyed by Hindus and other groups since the reign of Akbar in the 16th century. Protest against his religious policy, combined with agricultural discontent, and administrative decay undermined the Mogul Empire's system of government. Through his intolerance and over‐extension of the empire, Aurangzeb laid the foundations for its eventual collapse.

The decline of the Mogul Empire
Shortly after Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Oudh, the Deccan, and the eastern provinces became self‐governing, although they continued to acknowledge the emperor. The Maratha chief ministers, or Peshwas, ruled over a confederation of Maratha chiefs, the Sindhias, Gaikwars, Holkars, and Bhonslas, whose territories extended into west, north, central, and eastern India respectively. By the late 18th century the Sindhia Mahadaji took the Mogul emperor under his protection. Meanwhile in the south Mysore had become a formidable power under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan.

When the French and British joined the power struggle in the 18th century it was not clear just how much decline the Mogul Empire had suffered, both in power and status. Indeed, its partial revival under its chief minister Mirza Najaf Khan during the 1770s and 1780s postponed the empire's collapse until towards the end of the century. The Marathas were still strong, and, although the British had superior military organization and technology, the Sikhs, by imitation, managed to create an army of equal distinction. The British were able to destroy the Mogul Empire within ten years, and defeat the other Indian powers, largely because the able leadership of men such as Hyder Ali was frustrated by lack of trained subordinates and materials.

The impact of European trade
After the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama opened a sea‐route to India via the southern tip of Africa in 1497, India became a focus for great trading rivalry. The Portuguese made many settlements on the west coast of India, the most important of them being Goa. Towards the end of the 16th century commercial power in southern and southeast Asia began to pass into the hands of the Dutch. The Portuguese were driven from Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and the Dutch established themselves there and in the Malay Peninsula. The next great trading rivalry in the region rose between the Dutch and the British East India Company, a conflict that resulted in the eventual removal of the Dutch.

The British and French East India Companies
The British East India Company received its charter in 1600 from the English queen Elizabeth I, and the first English factory (trading post) was opened at Surat in 1612. Trade, and trade alone, was the East India Company's objective. This trade was to be obtained by peaceful enterprise and agreement, not by force. The Company's first act was to send an envoy to the Mogul emperor in Delhi to secure his permission to establish a trading post on the coast. The envoy was followed by an ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, who created the Company's policy, which was not to waste money on military expeditions and battles or in acquiring territory, but to seek profit at sea and in peaceful trading.

Between 1639 and 1690 the British established factories (trading posts) in Madras (now Chennai), Bombay (now Mumbai), Bengal, and Calcutta (now Kolkata). The site of Madras was purchased in 1639. Bombay, formerly a Portuguese possession, passed to the company in 1668 after it was given to Charles II of England as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry in 1662. A factory was established in Bengal in 1650, and in 1690 a settlement was made on the River Hooghly, which developed into the city of Calcutta.

The French appeared in India later than the British, setting up their own East India Company, the Compagnie des Indes Orientales, in 1664. The French East India Company set up its most important trading base at Pondicherry in southeast India in 1674 (which changed hands several times among the French, Dutch, and British until reverting to France 1814–1954). Although they made a great struggle for political power, the French Company was unable to compete in the long term with the British in India. The French never had the same finances, government support, or sufficient military strength. Britain also had superior sea power.

By the early 18th century, the British had fortified their three main trading posts – Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta – in order to protect them from pirates and from European rivals. They also recruited Indians known as sepoys, who were formed into regiments and trained by British officers.

The Anglo‐French struggle for India
During the European War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), fighting between France and Britain spilled over into India, beginning the struggle for supremacy in the region. The French captured Madras, but the treaty that ended the war restored Madras to the British.

During the Seven Years' War (1756–63), the rivalry between France and Britain renewed. A series of succession questions in the Deccan led both Britain and France to attempt to gain influence and power in the region. The British commander in the Deccan at this time was Robert Clive.

In June 1756 Siraj‐ud‐Daula, the Mogul governor of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, took Calcutta. He imprisoned 146 British prisoners in the Black Hole of Calcutta, resulting in many deaths. Clive was recalled from Madras to take revenge for this incident. In the Battle of Plassey (1757), which was little more than a skirmish, Clive routed Siraj in spite of his immensely superior forces. His victory marked the final step to British supremacy in the Indian subcontinent. Clive was made governor of Bengal from 1757. Three years later, at Wandiwash, Sir Eyre Coote finally broke the power of the French in the Deccan.

Clive, when he returned to Britain in 1760, realized that it was possible for Britain to build up an empire in India on the ruins of the Mogul Empire, but he advised against taking the risk that was necessary. Instead the Company collected the revenues of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, but as the subject of the nominal Mogul emperor in Delhi.

British rule under Clive and Hastings 1764–1784
The throne of Bengal passed into the hands of the nominee of the British East India Company, and in 1764 the victory of Hector Munro over Indian forces at Baksar gave the Company total control over Bengal. Clive, who had left for England in 1760 because of ill health, returned in 1764 to take up the governorship 1765–66. However, for a time the Company still regarded its defeat of the French as merely a means of securing its commercial monopoly.

Clive may well be regarded as the founder of British rule in the subcontinent. The British had been left with a clear field after the Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the Seven Years' War. The Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French had all disappeared as rivals to Britain, and the British could now consolidate their position in India with little fear of interference from any other European country.

Between 1767 and 1772 the British government was unsure about its policy towards India. Although the East India Company took some time to realize that it was a sovereign power in Bengal, Clive was aware of this and suggested that the British government should take control. In 1772 the Company appointed Warren Hastings as governor of Bengal. Hastings reformed the revenue‐collecting system and established civil and criminal courts. He took steps to protect British territory by selling land to the nawabs of Oudh in order to make Oudh a buffer state (barrier) between the British and the Marathas, and by helping Oudh in the Rohilla War.

In 1773 the British Parliament passed the Regulating Act, which gave the British government certain powers over the officials of the East India Company, and established a supreme court of justice and a council of war.

The only threat to British power throughout this period was Hyder Ali of Mysore, but Eyre Coote's victory over him in 1781 at Porto Novo again asserted the power of the British.

British expansion under Cornwallis and Wellesley 1786–1805
In 1784 the British government introduced the India Bill. The real power in India was now in the hands of the British crown, although nominally it still remained with the Company until 1858. Lord Charles Cornwallis, appointed governor general and commander‐in‐chief in 1786, was given far greater control over policy in India than Warren Hastings. Betweem 1786 and 1793 he created a proper system of civil service for the servants of the Company, organized the collection of set revenues, and made legal reforms. In 1789 Tipu Sultan of Mysore attacked Travancore. Cornwallis intervened with British forces, and with Tipu Sultan's defeat the Company took possession of half of Mysore.

Cornwallis left in 1793 and was succeeded for a time by Sir John Shore. In 1798 Richard Wellesley was appointed governor of India.

In 1799 the fourth Mysore War broke out. It was short, and in the course of it Tipu Sultan was killed. Wellesley promoted a policy of taking full possession of any available land, and expanded the territory controlled by the British East India Company. Wellesley also used a combination of money and persuasion to gain power and influence over the princes who still held control over much of India.

In 1803 the second Maratha War broke out, but Gen Arthur Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington, and the brother of the governor general) practically broke the power of the Marathas at the Battle of Assaye. Almost at the same time Gen Lake defeated another army and entered Delhi. The troops of Sindia were utterly defeated and the prince accepted money to become the servant of the British. The aggressive policy of Wellesley led to his recall, and Cornwallis was sent out for a second term. However, Wellesley had been responsible for many reforms, including the establishment of a school for civil servants. He also brought the finances of the country into a sound condition in spite of the expenses of his numerous campaigns.

During the 18th century the power of the Sikhs had been increasing continually in the Punjab and they now, under their leader Ranjit Singh, put forward claims to certain parts of the Punjab, claims that were unacceptable to the British. A British army was sent against Ranjit Singh, but no fighting took place, the threat of force being sufficient to ensure a Sikh withdrawal.

British rule in the early 19th century
During the Napoleonic Wars, British concerns were mainly focused on the French and their activities on the borders of India. Lord Minto, governor general 1807–13, sent missions to Persia and Afghanistan to fight French influence, and attacked the French colony of Ile‐de‐France (Mauritius) in the Indian Ocean. The Dutch colonies in Java were also attacked and captured.

In 1813 the British government resumed its policy of taking more Indian territory into British possession. It also abolished the monopoly of the East India Company except for trade in the China Sea in 1813, and appointed the Marquess of Hastings as governor general. Hastings defeated the Gurkhas and took possession of part of their territory of Nepal. The British campaign against the Pindaris widened into a war with the Marathas, much of whose land in the neighbourhood of Poona was taken over by the British. By the time Hastings left India in 1823, Britain had established its supremacy over the native states, and the whole of India was ruled by the British.

However, the British still faced threats and clashes on India's borders from the independent kingdom of Burma (see Myanmar: Burmese Wars) and the state of Afghanistan. The latter was regarded as an important buffer state (barrier) between Russia and British India, and attempts to oppose Russian influence in Afghanistan led to the Afghan Wars.

The independent Sikh state of the Punjab also posed a threat to British interests. In 1843 Charles Napier took Sind for Britain, and the next war broke out on the death of Ranjit Singh. Two wars were fought with the Sikhs, the first in 1845–46, the second in 1848–49. The Sikhs of the Punjab were the fiercest enemies the British had yet met in the subcontinent of India, but after the defeat of the Sikhs at Gujarat (1849) the Punjab was taken over by the British. In 1856 Oudh also became a British possession. Nagpur and Jhansi passed into the possession of the British about the same time.

The Indian Mutiny
Between 1823 and the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny many social reforms had taken place under British rule. Education was encouraged, canals developed, the telegraph and railways introduced, a system of cheap postage introduced, and suttee had been abolished. (This was a Hindu custom in which a widow committed suicide on her husband's funeral pyre.) These reforms had been especially noticeable during the administrations of Lord Bentinck (1828–35) and Lord Dalhousie (1848–56).

The Indian Mutiny (1857–58) had a variety of causes. Cultural differences were important, with many in India objecting to the enforcement of British customs and practices. The British policy of taking possession of Indian territory was distrusted and resented, and the obligation to serve abroad offended the caste sensitivities of many sepoys (Indian soldiers). A report that the cartridges supplied by the British were smeared with the fat of the cow and the pig, thus defiling both the beliefs of Hinduism and Islam, acted as the immediate cause. In effect, it was a war against British rule.

The mutiny broke out on 10 May 1857 at Meerut, and spread to Delhi. Within three weeks the whole of the Ganges plain had been affected, and in Delhi Bahadur Shah II, the representative of the Mogul dynasty, had again been proclaimed emperor of India. The majority of support for the mutiny came from the sepoys and dethroned princes of recently annexed territories, but in some areas it developed into a more general uprising. One of the principal rebel leaders was Nana Sahib.

There were less than 40,000 British soldiers to hold in check a population of millions. Kanpur and Lucknow were besieged. The local administrator, Henry Lawrence, held the Punjab in check, and a small British force advanced against Delhi. Gen Henry Havelock marched to the relief of Kanpur with a small force, and Lucknow held out. In September Delhi was stormed, and the Siege of Lucknow was relieved by Gen Colin Campbell in November, although the city was not finally taken until the following year.

In 1858 the mutiny was virtually at an end, although the Central Provinces were not pacified until the following year. The restoration of British control was accompanied by ferocious reprisals, and thousands of rebels were executed. The chief results of the mutiny were that the rule of the East India Company came to an end, being replaced by that of the British crown, with the governor general being replaced by a viceroy who was responsible to the British government. The Mogul Empire was finally abolished in 1858, and in 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India.

For the history of the Indian subcontinent before 1526, see India: history to 1526. For Indian history after 1858, see India: history 1858–1947 and India.