Hannibal (247–182 BC)

Carthaginian general from 221 BC, son of Hamilcar Barca. His siege of Saguntum (now Sagunto, near Valencia) precipitated the Second Punic War with Rome. Following a campaign in Italy (after crossing the Alps in 218), Hannibal was the victor at Trasimene in 217 and Cannae in 216, but he failed to take Rome. In 203 he returned to Carthage to meet a Roman invasion but was defeated at Zama in 202 and exiled in 196 at Rome's insistence.

Hannibal's invasion of Italy, his seemingly endless string of devastating victories over the Romans, and his inspiring personality earned him immortality as a military genius and iconic hero. Fulfilling an oath sworn at the age of 9 to always hate the Romans, Hannibal ravaged Italy for 16 years. Though defeating the Roman army in almost a dozen battles, relentless Roman resistance and the problems of supplying his invasion army prevented him from achieving a decisive victory. When the Romans finally fielded a general willing to experiment and innovate in battle as much as he had done, Publius Cornelius Scipio, Hannibal had to come to the defence of his own homeland. He was defeated at Zama in 202. He tried a political career, but was forced out of Carthage by opponents in 195 BC and spent the remainder of his life as a curiosity and mercenary among foreign courts, finally committing suicide.

As the son of the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal was brought up in a strongly military family. His father had instilled in him a deep hatred of the Romans, fuelled by a belief that the peace imposed by Rome after the First Punic War had been unjust and that Carthaginian politicians had ended the war when it could still have been won. Hamilcar had brought his family to settle in Spain in 237 BC and died in action there in 229 BC. The prestige of his family and his own personal popularity and military ability lead to Hannibal's election as commander of the Carthaginian army in Spain in 221 BC at the age of 26.

He resolved almost immediately to undertake an invasion of Italy. Knowing that Rome controlled the seas, Hannibal decided to invade by the one route the Romans thought impossible – by land. When he provoked war in 219 BC the plans for invasion were in place, and in 218 he led his army across the Alps into the Po Valley of Italy. He would not leave again until 202 BC.

Needing a quick victory to restore his troops' morale and impress the Gallic tribes, he defeated the first Roman army sent against him by ambushing it. The Roman generals were slow to learn that Hannibal, though commanding an organized conventional field army, was not always interested in fighting battles conventionally. He varied his deployments, used feints, and kept reserves hidden for surprise attacks. He also had an exceptional interest in military intelligence and reconnaissance, acquiring as much knowledge as possible about his enemy. His abilities as a tactician were shown to the full at Cannae in 216 BC, his greatest achievement.

Hannibal's victories persuaded large numbers of Rome's Italian allies to defect. These were crucial as the Carthaginian supply lines from Carthage were long and unreliable, and the more troops and supplies he could obtain locally the stronger his position. However, despite his series of victories, Rome refused to capitulate, and breaching the walls of the capital were beyond the capability of the Carthaginian army. Hannibal slowly lost the initiative and in 202 BC he was recalled to Carthage to defend his own capital. There he was defeated at Zama by Publius Cornelius Scipio (later Scipio ‘Africanus’).