Alexander I (1777–1825)

Tsar of Russia from 1801. Defeated by Napoleon at Austerlitz in 1805, he made peace at Tilsit in 1807, but economic crisis led to a break with Napoleon's Continental System and the opening of Russian ports to British trade; this led to Napoleon's ill‐fated invasion of Russia in 1812. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Alexander hoped through the Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia to establish a new Christian order in Europe.

He gave a new constitution to Poland, presented to him at the Congress of Vienna.

The first half of Alexander's reign was marked by several reforms and improvements: the abolition of torture, the creation of ministries and of the Council of State, the foundation of several universities and of an extensive state school system, and the liberation of serfs (without land) in the Baltic provinces and the granting of permission to squires elsewhere to free their serfs with land. Later, however, Alexander became mystical and reactionary, and undid much of the good previously done.